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https://doi.org/10.18502/gespr.v3i2.12608
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- Jan 16, 2023
Toward Culturally and Linguistically Responsive E-Learning in Post-COVID-19 Higher Education: Perspectives from the United Arab Emirates
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has caused dramatic shifts in education worldwide. In the spring of 2020, universities abruptly moved to emergency remote teaching and learning (ERT&L), with online and hybrid education continuing into the post-pandemic era. In the Gulf, cultural, religious, and sociolinguistic dynamics can present additional challenges for teaching and learning online. Reluctance to use cameras due to modesty, privacy, and E-safety concerns, amongst others, affects interaction and rapport. This article presents empirical data from a qualitative phenomenological case study investigating male and female Emirati university students’ (n = 107) perspectives on access, interaction, and engagement during Zoom classes in the fall of 2020 and spring of 2021. Students’ reflective essays and researcher observations revealed that intersecting factors, such as gender, religion, culture, linguistic challenges in English-medium universities, and fear of judgment, affected participants’ comfort levels and learning effectiveness in online classes. Data are analyzed through interpretive phenomenological analysis and the analytical tool of intersectionality, through which complexities of learner identities are explored. Practical suggestions are made on adapting online and hybrid learning to suit the sociocultural realities of Gulf states better by enhancing interaction and engagement in online classes without compromising comfort, E-safety, and privacy in post-pandemic education
Keywords:
E-learning, COVID-19, higher education, intersectionality, culturally and linguistically responsive pedagogy, UAE
References
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[3] Attanayake, A. U. (2019). Post-colonial curriculum practices in South Asia: Building confidence to speak English. Routledge.
[4] Belhiah, H., & Elhami, M. (2015). English as a medium of instruction in the Gulf: When students and teachers speak. Language Policy, 14(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-014-9336-9
[5] Belting, H. (2017). Face and mask: A double history. Princeton University Press.
[6] Berlant, L. (2011). Cruel optimism. Duke University Press.
[7] Block, D., & Corona, V. (2016). Intersectionality in language and identity research. In S. Preece (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of language and identity (pp. 507–522). Routledge
[1] Abid, T., Zahid, G., Shahid, N., & Bukhari, M. (2021). Online teaching experience during COVID-19 in Pakistan: Pedagogy-technology balance and student engagement. Fudan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 14, 367–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40647-021-00325-7
[2] Abudaqa, A., Hilmi, M. F., AlMujaini, H., Alzahmi, R. A., & Ahmed, G. (2021). Students’ perception of e-learning during the COVID Pandemic: A fresh evidence from the United Arab Emirates. Journal of E-learning and Knowledge Society, 17(3), 110–117. https://doi.org/10.20368/1971-8829/1135556
[3] Attanayake, A. U. (2019). Post-colonial curriculum practices in South Asia: Building confidence to speak English. Routledge.
[4] Belhiah, H., & Elhami, M. (2015). English as a medium of instruction in the Gulf: When students and teachers speak. Language Policy, 14(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-014-9336-9
[5] Belting, H. (2017). Face and mask: A double history. Princeton University Press.
[6] Berlant, L. (2011). Cruel optimism. Duke University Press.
[7] Block, D., & Corona, V. (2016). Intersectionality in language and identity research. In S. Preece (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of language and identity (pp. 507–522). Routledge
[8] Breslin, T. (2021). Lessons from lockdown: The educational legacy of COVID-19. Routledge.
[9] Carroll, K. S. (2022). Translanguaging for transformation: Resisting monolingual ideologies. In S. Hopkyns & W. Zoghbor (Eds.), Linguistic identities in the Arab Gulf states: Waves of change (pp.183–197). Routledge.
[10] Cho, S., Crenshaw, K. W., & McCall, L. (2013). Toward a field of intersectionality studies: Theory, applications, and praxis. Signs, 38(4), 785–810. https://doi.org/10.1086/669608
[11] Cohen L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007) Research methods in education (pp. 23–30). Routledge.
[12] Collins, P. H., & Bilge, S. (2020). Intersectionality. Polity Press.
[13] Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 140, 139–167. http://philpapers.org/rec/CREDTI
[14] Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of colour. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299.
[15] Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research designs: Choosing among five approaches. SAGE Publications.
[16] Davidson, C. (2012). Higher education in the Gulf: A historical background. In C. Davidson & P. Smith (Eds.), Higher education in the Gulf states: Shaping economies, politics and culture. SOAS Middle East Issues.
[17] Fikry, N., Ahmed, N. M., Almeland-Grøhn M. E., ElSharkawy M. A., Seifeldin F., & Younis A. A. (2021). COVID-19, the pand(m)emic. In J. M. Ryan (Ed.), COVID-19: Global pandemic, societal responses, ideological solutions (pp. 234–247). Routledge.
[18] Gallagher, K. (2016). From ‘late-late’ to ‘early-early’ immersion: Discontinuities and dilemmas in medium of instruction policies and practices. In L. Buckingham (Ed.), Language, identity and education on the Arabian Peninsula (pp. 139–160). Multilingual Matters.
[19] Giroux, H. (2021). Race, politics, and pandemic pedagogy: Education in a time of crisis. Bloomsbury.
[20] Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Anchor Books.
[21] Greenberg, K. H., Sohn, B. K., Greenberg, N. B., Pollio, H. R., Thomas, S. P., & Smith, J. T. (2019). The phenomenological heart of teaching and learning: Theory, research, and practice in higher education. Routledge.
[22] Hajar, A., & Manan, S. A. (2022). Young children’s perceptions of emergency online English learning during the Covid-19 pandemic: Evidence from Kazakhstan. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2022.2050735
[23] Hancock, A. (2016). Intersectionality. Oxford University Press.
[24] Hillman, S. (2021). Linguistically responsive instruction in international branch campuses: Beliefs and practices of liberal arts and STEM instructors. TESOL Quarterly, 55(4), 1162–1189. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3078
[25] Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Band, A. (2020). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. Educause Review. https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergencyremote- teaching-and-online-learning
[26] hooks, B. (1984). Feminist theory: From margin to center. South End.
[27] Hopkyns, S. (2022). Cultural and linguistic struggles and solidarities of Emirati learners in online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Policy Futures in Education, 20(4), 451–468. https://doi.org/10.1177/14782103211024815
[28] Hopkyns, S. (2020a). The impact of global English on cultural identities in the United Arab Emirates: Wanted not welcome. Routledge.
[29] Hopkyns, S. (2020b). Dancing between English and Arabic: Complexities in Emirati cultural identities. In N. Randolph, A. F. Selvi, & B. Yazan (Eds.), The complexity of identity and interaction in language education (pp. 249–265). Multilingual Matters.
[30] Hopkyns, S., & Elyas, T. (2022). Arabic vis-à-vis English in the Gulf: Bridging the ideological divide. In S. Hopkyns & W. Zoghbor (Eds.), Linguistic identities in the Arab Gulf States: Waves of change (pp. 17–32). Routledge.
[31] Hopkyns, S., & Nicoll, T. (2018). Countering learner ‘speech fright’. IATEFL Voices, 262, 4–5.
[32] Hopkyns, S., & Nicoll, T. (2014). Using avatars for digital role-playing to enhance fluency in the classroom. In S. Dowling (Ed.), Learning by doing: HCT Educational Technology Series, Book 3 (pp. 13–22): HCT Press.
[33] Hopkyns, S., & Trejo, P. (2020, November 9–10). Female Emirati LinkedIn identities: Challenging cultural barriers in Business English courses. The 13th Annual International Conference on Education, Research and Innovation (ICERI) Conference Proceedings.
[34] Hurley, Z. (2020, June 2). Showing their faces online is difficult for some Arab women: Educators must respond. Al-Fanar Media: Covering Education, Research, and Culture. https://www.al-fanarmedia.org/2020/06/showing-their-faces-online-isdifficult- for-some-arab-women-educators-must-respond/
[35] Hurley, Z., & Al Ali, K. (2021). Feminist postdigital inquiry in the ruins of pandemic universities. Postdigitial Science and Education, 3, 771–792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-021-00254-4
[36] Hycner, R. H. (1999). Some guidelines for the phenomenological analysis of interview data. In A. Bryman & R. G. Burgess (Eds.), Qualitative research (pp. 143–164). SAGE Publications.
[37] Jones, W., McKeown, K., & Littlewood, S. (2022). The challenges of EMI for art and design students in the UAE. ELT Journal, 76(2), 238–249. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccab094
[38] Khan, A. A., De Alwis, D., & Saif, S. K. (2021, May 14). Asian universities close again amid new coronavirus wave. University World News. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20210514090437971
[39] Macaro, E. (2018). English medium instruction. Oxford University Press.
[40] Martin, M., & Furiv, U. (2020, December 12). COVID-19 tests the resilience of higher education. University World News. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20201211130427131
[41] Ocriciano, M. (2020). Considerations when building e-learning courses, part 3. IATEFL Voices, 277, 10–11.
[42] Pun, J. K. H., & Thomas, N. (2020). English medium instruction: Teachers’ challenges and coping strategies. ELT Journal, 74(3), 247–257. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccaa024
[43] Roddy, C., Amiet, D. L., Chung, J., Holt, C., Shaw, L., McKenzie, S., Garivaldis, F., Lodge, J. M., & Mundy, M. E. (2017). Applying best practice online learning, teaching, and support to intensive online environments: An integrative review. Frontiers in Education, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2017.00059
[44] Ryan, J. M., & Nanda, S. (2022). COVID-19: Social inequalities and human possibilities. Routledge.
[45] Said, F. F. S., Jaafarawi, N., & Dillon, A. (2021). Mothers’ accounts of attending to educational and everyday needs of their children at home during COVID-19: The case of the UAE. Social Sciences, 10(4), 141. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10040141
[46] Sim, W. (2020). For love, money and status, or personal growth? A survey of young Emirati women’s educational aspirations. Gulf Education and Social Policy Review, 1(1), 73–90. https://doi.org/10.18502/gespr.v1i1.7470
[47] Smith, J. A., & Nizza, I. E. (2021). Essentials of interpretive phenomenological analysis. American Psychological Association.
[48] Smith, J. A., & Osborn, M. (2008). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to methods (pp. 53–80). SAGE Publications.
[49] Smith, S. L., Sanford, A. G., & Blum, D. (2021). Spotlighting hidden inequities. In J. M. Ryan (Ed.), COVID-19: Global pandemic, societal responses, ideological solutions (pp. 124–138). Routledge.
[50] Strauss, V. (2020, July 25). Why COVID-19 will ‘explode’ existing academic achievement gaps. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2020/04/17/why-covid-19-will-explodeexisting- academic-achievement-gaps/
[51] Thomas, J. (2022, February 7). How do we feel about Web3 – or the metaverse? The National. https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/2022/02/07/howdo- we-feel-about-web3-or-the-metaverse/
[52] Tomlinson, B. (2013). To tell the truth and not get trapped: Desire, distance, and intersectionality at the scene of an argument. Signs, 38(4), 993–1017. https://doi.org/10.1086/669571
[53] Qureshi, N., Tomar, A., & Thomas, A. (2021). Virtual classrooms: Challenges handled by the schools and Muslim girls in COVID-19 times: A study of 10 Muslim managed schools of Vadodara. Interwoven: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Navrachana University, 4(1), 1–18.
[54] Yin, R. K. (2014) Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.
[55] Zolzmann, K., & Rivers, D. J. (2017) Introduction: Bringing the ISMs into focus. In D. J. Rivers & K. Zotzmann (Eds.), Isms in Language Education (pp. 1–14). Walter de Gruyter Inc.
[56] World Bank. (2021). GDP (current US$). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP. MKTP.CD
[57] Worldometer.com. (2022). Covid-19 coronavirus pandemic. https://www. worldometers.info/coronavirus/
[2] Abudaqa, A., Hilmi, M. F., AlMujaini, H., Alzahmi, R. A., & Ahmed, G. (2021). Students’ perception of e-learning during the COVID Pandemic: A fresh evidence from the United Arab Emirates. Journal of E-learning and Knowledge Society, 17(3), 110–117. https://doi.org/10.20368/1971-8829/1135556
[3] Attanayake, A. U. (2019). Post-colonial curriculum practices in South Asia: Building confidence to speak English. Routledge.
[4] Belhiah, H., & Elhami, M. (2015). English as a medium of instruction in the Gulf: When students and teachers speak. Language Policy, 14(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-014-9336-9
[5] Belting, H. (2017). Face and mask: A double history. Princeton University Press.
[6] Berlant, L. (2011). Cruel optimism. Duke University Press.
[7] Block, D., & Corona, V. (2016). Intersectionality in language and identity research. In S. Preece (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of language and identity (pp. 507–522). Routledge
[1] Abid, T., Zahid, G., Shahid, N., & Bukhari, M. (2021). Online teaching experience during COVID-19 in Pakistan: Pedagogy-technology balance and student engagement. Fudan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 14, 367–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40647-021-00325-7
[2] Abudaqa, A., Hilmi, M. F., AlMujaini, H., Alzahmi, R. A., & Ahmed, G. (2021). Students’ perception of e-learning during the COVID Pandemic: A fresh evidence from the United Arab Emirates. Journal of E-learning and Knowledge Society, 17(3), 110–117. https://doi.org/10.20368/1971-8829/1135556
[3] Attanayake, A. U. (2019). Post-colonial curriculum practices in South Asia: Building confidence to speak English. Routledge.
[4] Belhiah, H., & Elhami, M. (2015). English as a medium of instruction in the Gulf: When students and teachers speak. Language Policy, 14(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10993-014-9336-9
[5] Belting, H. (2017). Face and mask: A double history. Princeton University Press.
[6] Berlant, L. (2011). Cruel optimism. Duke University Press.
[7] Block, D., & Corona, V. (2016). Intersectionality in language and identity research. In S. Preece (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of language and identity (pp. 507–522). Routledge
[8] Breslin, T. (2021). Lessons from lockdown: The educational legacy of COVID-19. Routledge.
[9] Carroll, K. S. (2022). Translanguaging for transformation: Resisting monolingual ideologies. In S. Hopkyns & W. Zoghbor (Eds.), Linguistic identities in the Arab Gulf states: Waves of change (pp.183–197). Routledge.
[10] Cho, S., Crenshaw, K. W., & McCall, L. (2013). Toward a field of intersectionality studies: Theory, applications, and praxis. Signs, 38(4), 785–810. https://doi.org/10.1086/669608
[11] Cohen L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007) Research methods in education (pp. 23–30). Routledge.
[12] Collins, P. H., & Bilge, S. (2020). Intersectionality. Polity Press.
[13] Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 140, 139–167. http://philpapers.org/rec/CREDTI
[14] Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of colour. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299.
[15] Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research designs: Choosing among five approaches. SAGE Publications.
[16] Davidson, C. (2012). Higher education in the Gulf: A historical background. In C. Davidson & P. Smith (Eds.), Higher education in the Gulf states: Shaping economies, politics and culture. SOAS Middle East Issues.
[17] Fikry, N., Ahmed, N. M., Almeland-Grøhn M. E., ElSharkawy M. A., Seifeldin F., & Younis A. A. (2021). COVID-19, the pand(m)emic. In J. M. Ryan (Ed.), COVID-19: Global pandemic, societal responses, ideological solutions (pp. 234–247). Routledge.
[18] Gallagher, K. (2016). From ‘late-late’ to ‘early-early’ immersion: Discontinuities and dilemmas in medium of instruction policies and practices. In L. Buckingham (Ed.), Language, identity and education on the Arabian Peninsula (pp. 139–160). Multilingual Matters.
[19] Giroux, H. (2021). Race, politics, and pandemic pedagogy: Education in a time of crisis. Bloomsbury.
[20] Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Anchor Books.
[21] Greenberg, K. H., Sohn, B. K., Greenberg, N. B., Pollio, H. R., Thomas, S. P., & Smith, J. T. (2019). The phenomenological heart of teaching and learning: Theory, research, and practice in higher education. Routledge.
[22] Hajar, A., & Manan, S. A. (2022). Young children’s perceptions of emergency online English learning during the Covid-19 pandemic: Evidence from Kazakhstan. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2022.2050735
[23] Hancock, A. (2016). Intersectionality. Oxford University Press.
[24] Hillman, S. (2021). Linguistically responsive instruction in international branch campuses: Beliefs and practices of liberal arts and STEM instructors. TESOL Quarterly, 55(4), 1162–1189. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3078
[25] Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Band, A. (2020). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. Educause Review. https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergencyremote- teaching-and-online-learning
[26] hooks, B. (1984). Feminist theory: From margin to center. South End.
[27] Hopkyns, S. (2022). Cultural and linguistic struggles and solidarities of Emirati learners in online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Policy Futures in Education, 20(4), 451–468. https://doi.org/10.1177/14782103211024815
[28] Hopkyns, S. (2020a). The impact of global English on cultural identities in the United Arab Emirates: Wanted not welcome. Routledge.
[29] Hopkyns, S. (2020b). Dancing between English and Arabic: Complexities in Emirati cultural identities. In N. Randolph, A. F. Selvi, & B. Yazan (Eds.), The complexity of identity and interaction in language education (pp. 249–265). Multilingual Matters.
[30] Hopkyns, S., & Elyas, T. (2022). Arabic vis-à-vis English in the Gulf: Bridging the ideological divide. In S. Hopkyns & W. Zoghbor (Eds.), Linguistic identities in the Arab Gulf States: Waves of change (pp. 17–32). Routledge.
[31] Hopkyns, S., & Nicoll, T. (2018). Countering learner ‘speech fright’. IATEFL Voices, 262, 4–5.
[32] Hopkyns, S., & Nicoll, T. (2014). Using avatars for digital role-playing to enhance fluency in the classroom. In S. Dowling (Ed.), Learning by doing: HCT Educational Technology Series, Book 3 (pp. 13–22): HCT Press.
[33] Hopkyns, S., & Trejo, P. (2020, November 9–10). Female Emirati LinkedIn identities: Challenging cultural barriers in Business English courses. The 13th Annual International Conference on Education, Research and Innovation (ICERI) Conference Proceedings.
[34] Hurley, Z. (2020, June 2). Showing their faces online is difficult for some Arab women: Educators must respond. Al-Fanar Media: Covering Education, Research, and Culture. https://www.al-fanarmedia.org/2020/06/showing-their-faces-online-isdifficult- for-some-arab-women-educators-must-respond/
[35] Hurley, Z., & Al Ali, K. (2021). Feminist postdigital inquiry in the ruins of pandemic universities. Postdigitial Science and Education, 3, 771–792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-021-00254-4
[36] Hycner, R. H. (1999). Some guidelines for the phenomenological analysis of interview data. In A. Bryman & R. G. Burgess (Eds.), Qualitative research (pp. 143–164). SAGE Publications.
[37] Jones, W., McKeown, K., & Littlewood, S. (2022). The challenges of EMI for art and design students in the UAE. ELT Journal, 76(2), 238–249. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccab094
[38] Khan, A. A., De Alwis, D., & Saif, S. K. (2021, May 14). Asian universities close again amid new coronavirus wave. University World News. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20210514090437971
[39] Macaro, E. (2018). English medium instruction. Oxford University Press.
[40] Martin, M., & Furiv, U. (2020, December 12). COVID-19 tests the resilience of higher education. University World News. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20201211130427131
[41] Ocriciano, M. (2020). Considerations when building e-learning courses, part 3. IATEFL Voices, 277, 10–11.
[42] Pun, J. K. H., & Thomas, N. (2020). English medium instruction: Teachers’ challenges and coping strategies. ELT Journal, 74(3), 247–257. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccaa024
[43] Roddy, C., Amiet, D. L., Chung, J., Holt, C., Shaw, L., McKenzie, S., Garivaldis, F., Lodge, J. M., & Mundy, M. E. (2017). Applying best practice online learning, teaching, and support to intensive online environments: An integrative review. Frontiers in Education, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2017.00059
[44] Ryan, J. M., & Nanda, S. (2022). COVID-19: Social inequalities and human possibilities. Routledge.
[45] Said, F. F. S., Jaafarawi, N., & Dillon, A. (2021). Mothers’ accounts of attending to educational and everyday needs of their children at home during COVID-19: The case of the UAE. Social Sciences, 10(4), 141. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10040141
[46] Sim, W. (2020). For love, money and status, or personal growth? A survey of young Emirati women’s educational aspirations. Gulf Education and Social Policy Review, 1(1), 73–90. https://doi.org/10.18502/gespr.v1i1.7470
[47] Smith, J. A., & Nizza, I. E. (2021). Essentials of interpretive phenomenological analysis. American Psychological Association.
[48] Smith, J. A., & Osborn, M. (2008). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to methods (pp. 53–80). SAGE Publications.
[49] Smith, S. L., Sanford, A. G., & Blum, D. (2021). Spotlighting hidden inequities. In J. M. Ryan (Ed.), COVID-19: Global pandemic, societal responses, ideological solutions (pp. 124–138). Routledge.
[50] Strauss, V. (2020, July 25). Why COVID-19 will ‘explode’ existing academic achievement gaps. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2020/04/17/why-covid-19-will-explodeexisting- academic-achievement-gaps/
[51] Thomas, J. (2022, February 7). How do we feel about Web3 – or the metaverse? The National. https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/2022/02/07/howdo- we-feel-about-web3-or-the-metaverse/
[52] Tomlinson, B. (2013). To tell the truth and not get trapped: Desire, distance, and intersectionality at the scene of an argument. Signs, 38(4), 993–1017. https://doi.org/10.1086/669571
[53] Qureshi, N., Tomar, A., & Thomas, A. (2021). Virtual classrooms: Challenges handled by the schools and Muslim girls in COVID-19 times: A study of 10 Muslim managed schools of Vadodara. Interwoven: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Navrachana University, 4(1), 1–18.
[54] Yin, R. K. (2014) Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.
[55] Zolzmann, K., & Rivers, D. J. (2017) Introduction: Bringing the ISMs into focus. In D. J. Rivers & K. Zotzmann (Eds.), Isms in Language Education (pp. 1–14). Walter de Gruyter Inc.
[56] World Bank. (2021). GDP (current US$). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP. MKTP.CD
[57] Worldometer.com. (2022). Covid-19 coronavirus pandemic. https://www. worldometers.info/coronavirus/