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Osman Ahmed Abdalla, A., Mohammed, A., Abdalla Ahmed El hadi, H., Abdelrahman Mohamed Khaier, M., & Abdalla Zainaldeen, A. (2024). Prevalence of Leishmania donovani Infection in Humans and Dogs in Gadarif State, Sudan: A Diagnostic Comparison. Sudan Journal of Medical Sciences (SJMS), 19(1), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.18502/sjms.v19i1.15788
https://doi.org/10.18502/sjms.v19i1.15788
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authors
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Ahmed Osman Ahmed Abdalla
Ahmed Osman Ahmed Abdalla
Department of Parasitology, Microbiology, and Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Gadarif, Gadarif State, Sudan
-
Abdullah Mohammed
Abdullah Mohammed
Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Gadarif, Gadarif State, Sudan
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Hanan Abdalla Ahmed El hadi
Hanan Abdalla Ahmed El hadi
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gadarif, Gadarif State, Sudan
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Mona Abdelrahman Mohamed Khaier
Mona Abdelrahman Mohamed Khaier
Department of Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bahri, Khartoum, Sudan
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Alsadig Abdalla Zainaldeen
Alsadig Abdalla Zainaldeen
Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bahri, Khartoum, Sudan
Published Date
- Mar 29, 2024
Prevalence of Leishmania donovani Infection in Humans and Dogs in Gadarif State, Sudan: A Diagnostic Comparison
Abstract
Background: Leishmania donovani is a protozoan parasite that causes visceral leishmaniasis, a potentially fatal disease in humans and dogs. The epidemiology and transmission dynamics of L. donovani in Sudan are poorly understood. We aim to determine the prevalence and characterization of L. donovani in human hospital cases and domestic dogs using different diagnostic methods in two localities in Gadarif State, Sudan.
Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2019 to April 2020. Whole blood samples and lymph node aspirates were collected from 69 human and 32 dog participants for parasitological, immunological, and molecular tests.
Results: No parasites were detected in blood samples from either humans or dogs. Lymph node microscopy revealed 71.01% positivity in humans and 9.4% in dogs. The IT Leish test showed 82.6% positivity in humans and 43.75% in dogs. PCR confirmed L. donovani infection in all six selected samples (three from humans and three from dogs).
Conclusion: The study confirmed the presence of L. donovani in both human and dog populations in the study area, suggesting that dogs may act as reservoirs or hosts for the parasite. The IT Leish kit test was the most sensitive and specific method, while microscopy of blood and lymph node smears was the least sensitive method. Further studies are needed to elucidate the role of dogs in the transmission cycle of L. donovani and the risk factors associated with human infection.
Keywords:
Leishmania donovani, Sudan, dogs, prevalence, molecular diagnosis
References
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[15] Gomes, A. H., Ferreira, I. M., Lima, M. L., Cunha, E. A., Garcia, A. S., Araújo, M. F., & Pereira- Chioccola, V. L. (2007). PCR identification of leishmania in diagnosis and control of canine leishmaniasis. Veterinary Parasitology, 144(3-4), 234–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.10.008
[16] Osman, O. F., Oskam, L., Zijlstra, E. E., Kroon, N. C., Schoone, G. J., Khalil, E. T., El-Hassan, A. M., & Kager, P. A. (1997). Evaluation of PCR for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 35(10), 2454–2457. https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.35.10.2454-2457.1997
[17] Ozerdem, D., Eroglu, F., Genc, A., Demirkazik, M., & Koltas, I. S. (2009). Comparison of microscopic examination, rK39, and PCR for visceral leishmaniasis diagnosis in Turkey. Parasitology Research, 106(1), 197–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-009- 1650-3
[18] Dereure, J., Boni, M., Pratlong, F., el Hadi Osman, M., Bucheton, B., el-Safi, S., Feugier, E., Musa, M. K., Davoust, B., Dessein, A., & Dedet, J. P. (2000). Visceral leishmaniasis in Sudan: First identifications of Leishmania from dogs. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 94(2), 154–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0035-9203(00)90253-0
[19] WHO. (2002). Urbanization: An increasing risk factor for leishmaniasis. Weekly Epidemiological Record, 77(44), 365–370.
[20] Hassan, M. M., Osman, O. F., El-Raba’a, F. M. A., Schallig, H. D., & Elnaiem, D. E. (2009). Role of the domestic dog as a reservoir host of Leishmania donovani in eastern Sudan. Parasites & Vectors, 2(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-2-26
[21] Mukhtar, M. M., Sharief, A. H., el Saffi, S. H., Harith, A. E., Higazzi, T. B., Adam, A. M., & Abdalla, H. S. (2000). Detection of antibodies to Leishmania donovani in animals in a kala-azar endemic region in eastern Sudan: A preliminary report. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 94(1), 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0035- 9203(00)90429-2
[22] Dereure, J., El-Safi, S. H., Bucheton, B., Boni, M., Kheir, M. M., Davoust, B., Pratlong, F., Feugier, E., Lambert, M., Dessein, A., & Dedet, J. P. (2003). Visceral leishmaniasis in eastern Sudan: Parasite identification in humans and dogs; host-parasite relationships. Microbes and Infection, 5(12), 1103– 1108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2003.07.003
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[26] Mulla, S. A., Osman, A. Y., Hussien, M. O., Salih, D. A., & El Hussein, A. M. (2016). Leishmania donovani infection in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) in Eastern Sudan. International Journal of Biological & Pharmaceutical Research, 7(2), 109–115.
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[29] Sundar, S., Singh, R., Bharti, K., Maurya, R., Delafosse, I., & Jacquier, P. (Eds.). Evaluation of a new rapid immunochromatographicdiagnostic test (Diamed-it Leish) for Indian visceral leishmaniasis and PKDL. The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene: ASTMH 52 nd Annual Meeting; 2003.
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[32] Mondal, S., Bhattacharya, P., & Ali, N. (2010). Current diagnosis and treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy, 8(8), 919– 944. https://doi.org/10.1586/eri.10.78
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[34] Chappuis, F., Sundar, S., Hailu, A., Ghalib, H., Rijal, S., Peeling, R. W., Alvar, J., & Boelaert, M. (2007). Visceral leishmaniasis: What are the needs for diagnosis, treatment and control? Nature Reviews Microbiology, 5(11), 873–882. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro1748
[35] Palatnik-de-Sousa, C. B., dos Santos, W. R., França- Silva, J. C., da Costa, R. T., Reis, A. B., Palatnik, M., Mayrink, W., & Genaro, O. (2001). Impact of canine control on the epidemiology of canine and human visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 65(5), 510–517. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2001.65.510
[36] Belo, V. S., Werneck, G. L., Barbosa, D. S., Sim oes, T. C., Nascimento, B. W., da Silva, E. S., & Struchiner, C. J. (2013). Factors associated with visceral leishmaniasis in the Americas: A systematic review and metaanalysis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 7(4), e2182. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002182
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[2] Okwor, I., & Uzonna, J. (2016). Social and economic burden of human leishmaniasis. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 94(3), 489–493. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.15-0408
[3] WHO. (2010). Report of a meeting of the WHO expert committee on the control of leishmaniases. Report No.: 0512-3054 Contract No.: 949.Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
[4] El-Hassan, A. M., & Zijlstra, E. E. (2001). Leishmaniasis in Sudan. Cutaneous leishmaniasis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 95(Supplement_1), S1–S17.
[5] Abdullah, A. A., Ahmed, M., Gadeed, A., Eltayeb, A., Ahmed, S., Hamad, S., & Hussein, M. (2022). Five-year retrospective hospital-based study on epidemiological data regarding human leishmaniasis in West Kordofan state, Sudan. World Journal of Clinical Infectious Diseases, 12(2), 61–68. https://doi.org/10.5495/wjcid.v12.i2.61
[6] Ahmed, M., Abdulslam Abdullah, A., Bello, I., Hamad, S., & Bashir, A. (2022). Prevalence of human leishmaniasis in Sudan: A systematic review and meta-analysis. World Journal of Methodology, 12(4), 305–318. https://doi.org/10.5662/wjm.v12.i4.305
[7] Alvar, J., Vélez, I. D., Bern, C., Herrero, M., Desjeux, P., Cano, J., Jannin, J., den Boer, M., & the WHO Leishmaniasis Control Team. (2012). Leishmaniasis worldwide and global estimates of its incidence. PLoS One, 7(5), e35671. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035671
[8] Moulik, S., Chaudhuri, S. J., Sardar, B., Ghosh, M., Saha, B., Das, N. K., & Chatterjee, M. (2018). Monitoring of parasite kinetics in Indian post–kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 66(3), 404–410. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cix808
[9] Cardo, L. J. (2006). Leishmania: Risk to the blood supply. Transfusion, 46(9), 1641–1645. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1537-2995.2006.00941.x
[10] Lozano, R., Naghavi, M., Foreman, K., Lim, S., Shibuya, K., Aboyans, V., Abraham, J., Adair, T., Aggarwal, R., Ahn, S. Y., Alvarado, M., Anderson, H. R., Anderson, L. M., Andrews, K. G., Atkinson, C., Baddour, L. M., Barker-Collo, S., Bartels, D. H., Bell, M. L., . . . Memish, Z. A. (2012). Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet, 380(9859), 2095–2128. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0
[11] Murray, C. J., Vos, T., Lozano, R., Naghavi, M., Flaxman, A. D., Michaud, C., Ezzati, M., Shibuya, K., Salomon, J. A., Abdalla, S., Aboyans, V., Abraham, J., Ackerman, I., Aggarwal, R., Ahn, S. Y., Ali, M. K., Alvarado, M., Anderson, H. R., Anderson, L. M., . . . Memish, Z. A. (2012). Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990-2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet, 380(9859), 2197–2223. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61689-4
[12] Zijlstra, E. E., Ali, M. S., el-Hassan, A. M., el- Toum, I. A., Satti, M., Ghalib, H. W., & Kager, P. A. (1992). Kala-azar: A comparative study of parasitological methods and the direct agglutination test in diagnosis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 86(5), 505–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(92)90086-R
[13] Boelaert, M., Verdonck, K., Menten, J., Sunyoto, T., van Griensven, J., Chappuis, F., & Rijal, S. (2014). Rapid tests for the diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in patients with suspected disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2014(6), CD009135. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009135.pub2
[14] Elbihari, S., Cheema, A. H., & el-Hassan, A. M. (1987). Leishmania infecting man and wild animals in Saudi Arabia. 4. Canine cutaneous leishmaniasis in the Eastern Province. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 81(6), 925–927. https://doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(87)90353-1
[15] Gomes, A. H., Ferreira, I. M., Lima, M. L., Cunha, E. A., Garcia, A. S., Araújo, M. F., & Pereira- Chioccola, V. L. (2007). PCR identification of leishmania in diagnosis and control of canine leishmaniasis. Veterinary Parasitology, 144(3-4), 234–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.10.008
[16] Osman, O. F., Oskam, L., Zijlstra, E. E., Kroon, N. C., Schoone, G. J., Khalil, E. T., El-Hassan, A. M., & Kager, P. A. (1997). Evaluation of PCR for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 35(10), 2454–2457. https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.35.10.2454-2457.1997
[17] Ozerdem, D., Eroglu, F., Genc, A., Demirkazik, M., & Koltas, I. S. (2009). Comparison of microscopic examination, rK39, and PCR for visceral leishmaniasis diagnosis in Turkey. Parasitology Research, 106(1), 197–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-009- 1650-3
[18] Dereure, J., Boni, M., Pratlong, F., el Hadi Osman, M., Bucheton, B., el-Safi, S., Feugier, E., Musa, M. K., Davoust, B., Dessein, A., & Dedet, J. P. (2000). Visceral leishmaniasis in Sudan: First identifications of Leishmania from dogs. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 94(2), 154–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0035-9203(00)90253-0
[19] WHO. (2002). Urbanization: An increasing risk factor for leishmaniasis. Weekly Epidemiological Record, 77(44), 365–370.
[20] Hassan, M. M., Osman, O. F., El-Raba’a, F. M. A., Schallig, H. D., & Elnaiem, D. E. (2009). Role of the domestic dog as a reservoir host of Leishmania donovani in eastern Sudan. Parasites & Vectors, 2(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-2-26
[21] Mukhtar, M. M., Sharief, A. H., el Saffi, S. H., Harith, A. E., Higazzi, T. B., Adam, A. M., & Abdalla, H. S. (2000). Detection of antibodies to Leishmania donovani in animals in a kala-azar endemic region in eastern Sudan: A preliminary report. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 94(1), 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0035- 9203(00)90429-2
[22] Dereure, J., El-Safi, S. H., Bucheton, B., Boni, M., Kheir, M. M., Davoust, B., Pratlong, F., Feugier, E., Lambert, M., Dessein, A., & Dedet, J. P. (2003). Visceral leishmaniasis in eastern Sudan: Parasite identification in humans and dogs; host-parasite relationships. Microbes and Infection, 5(12), 1103– 1108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2003.07.003
[23] El Hadi, H. A. A. A. (2011). Studies on the transmission dynamics of leishmania donovani in Gadarif State Eastern Sudan. University of Khartoum.
[24] Elmahee, H. S. M. (2019). Prevalence and risk factors of canine leishmaniasis in Gedaref State Khartoum. Sudan: Sudan University of Science and Technology (SUST).
[25] Sulieman, H. M., & Buchroithner, M. F. (2009). Degradation and abandonment of mechanized rain-fed agricultural land in the Southern Gadarif region, Sudan: The local farmers’ perception. Land Degradation & Development, 20(2), 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.894
[26] Mulla, S. A., Osman, A. Y., Hussien, M. O., Salih, D. A., & El Hussein, A. M. (2016). Leishmania donovani infection in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) in Eastern Sudan. International Journal of Biological & Pharmaceutical Research, 7(2), 109–115.
[27] WHO. (1996). Manual on visceral leishmaniasis control. World Health Organization.
[28] Burns, J. M., Jr., Shreffler, W. G., Benson, D. R., Ghalib, H. W., Badaro, R., & Reed, S. G. (1993). Molecular characterization of a kinesin-related antigen of Leishmania chagasi that detects specific antibody in African and American visceral leishmaniasis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 90(2), 775–779. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.90.2.775
[29] Sundar, S., Singh, R., Bharti, K., Maurya, R., Delafosse, I., & Jacquier, P. (Eds.). Evaluation of a new rapid immunochromatographicdiagnostic test (Diamed-it Leish) for Indian visceral leishmaniasis and PKDL. The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene: ASTMH 52 nd Annual Meeting; 2003.
[30] Ciulla, T. A., Sklar, R. M., & Hauser, S. L. (1988). A simple method for DNA purification from peripheral blood. Analytical Biochemistry, 174(2), 485–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2697(88)90047-4
[31] Mohamed, N. S., Osman, H. A., Muneer, M. S., Samy, A. M., Ahmed, A., Mohammed, A. O., Siddig, E. E., Abdel Hamid, M. M., Siralkhatim Ali, M., Omer, R. A., & Elaagip, A. H. (2019). Identifying asymptomatic infections of visceral leishmaniasis in non-endemic regions with the associated risk factors in Gedaref state, Sudan. BMC Research Notes, 11(12), 566. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-019-4608-2
[32] Mondal, S., Bhattacharya, P., & Ali, N. (2010). Current diagnosis and treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy, 8(8), 919– 944. https://doi.org/10.1586/eri.10.78
[33] Sundar, S., & Rai, M. (2002). Laboratory diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology, 9(5), 951–958.
[34] Chappuis, F., Sundar, S., Hailu, A., Ghalib, H., Rijal, S., Peeling, R. W., Alvar, J., & Boelaert, M. (2007). Visceral leishmaniasis: What are the needs for diagnosis, treatment and control? Nature Reviews Microbiology, 5(11), 873–882. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro1748
[35] Palatnik-de-Sousa, C. B., dos Santos, W. R., França- Silva, J. C., da Costa, R. T., Reis, A. B., Palatnik, M., Mayrink, W., & Genaro, O. (2001). Impact of canine control on the epidemiology of canine and human visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 65(5), 510–517. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2001.65.510
[36] Belo, V. S., Werneck, G. L., Barbosa, D. S., Sim oes, T. C., Nascimento, B. W., da Silva, E. S., & Struchiner, C. J. (2013). Factors associated with visceral leishmaniasis in the Americas: A systematic review and metaanalysis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 7(4), e2182. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002182
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