A Critical Review of the Literature and Practice of Competency Modelling
Abstract
Competency models are commonly practiced today in many organizations as they lead to significant human resource development that provides organizations with a competitive edge. Because of their immense importance, measurement and modelling of competencies has become an important research field. However, despite the extensive research, there are large research gaps regarding the empirical knowledge and applicability of competency models. This article presents a critical review of competency modelling literature and practice from the major perspectives (including applied, academic, and professional) in an attempt to shed additional light on the advantages and practices of competency modelling, as well as outlining current challenges in such a vibrant domain. The intention, in this article, was to build a coherent argument with an objective of illustrating the effective use, as well as deficiencies in this domain based on aggregated experiences of many authors across many years and settings. The author explicitly acknowledges that the approach for this critical review has many limitations, since it is experience-based rather than empirically based. Yet, it is believed that this article may provide a framework that can lead to a solid investigation of competency modelling with more rigor than they have been afforded to date.
Keywords: Competency Modelling, Behavioural Paradigm, Job Analysis, Performance, NVivo
References
[1] Athey, T.R. and Orth, M. S. (1999). Emerging Competency Methods for the Future. Human Resource Management, 38(3), 215-226.
[2] Barrett, G.V. (1994). “Empirical Data Say it All”. American Psychologist, 1, 69-71.
[3] Barrett, G.V., and Depinet, R.L. (1991). Reconsideration of Testing for Competence Rather than Intelligence. American Psychologist, 46, 1012-1024.
[4] Blancero, D., Boroski, J., and Dyer, L. (1996). Key Competencies for a Transformed Human Resource Organization: Results of a Field Study. Human Resource Management, 35, 383-403.
[5] Blömeke, S., Gustafsson, J.E. & Shavelson, R. (2015). Beyond Dichotomies: Competence Viewed as a Continuum. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 223(1)
[6] Bowen, D.E., Ledford, G. E., and Nathan, B. (1991). Hiring for the Organization, Not the Job. Academy of Management Executive, 5, 35-51.
[7] Boyatzis, R.E. (1982). The Competent Manager: A Model of Effective Performance. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
[8] Boyatzis, R.E. (2008). Competencies in the 21st Century. Journal of Management Development, 27(1), 5-12. Retrieved July 22, 2011, from Emerald database.
[9] Brown, R.B. (1993). Meta-Competence: a Recipe for Reframing the Competence Debate. Personnel Review, 22(6), 25-36.
[10] Campion, M. A., Fink, A. A., Ruggeberg, B. J., Carr, L., Phillips, G. M., & Odman, R. B. (2011). Doing competencies well: Best practices in competency modeling. Personnel Psychology, 64(1), 225-262.
[11] Catano, V.M., Cronshaw, S. Wiesner, W.H., Hackett, R.D., and Methot, L. (1997). Recruitment and Selection in Canada (4th ed.). Toronto: ITP Nelson.
[12] Cobb, J., and Gibbs, J. (1990). A New, Competency-Based, On-the-Job Program for Developing Professional Excellence in Engineering. Journal of Management Development, 9, 60-72.
[13] Cooper, K.C. (2000). Effective Competency Modelling and Reporting. USA: American Management Association.
[14] Dainty, A., Cheng, M., Moore, D. (2005). A Comparison of the Behavioural Competencies of Client-Focused and Production-Focused Project Managers in the Construction Sector. Project Management Journal, 36(1), 39-48.
[15] DeSeCo (2005). The OECD Program for Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo): Theoretical and Conceptual Foundations. Retrieved March 26, 2009, from http://www.portal-stat.admin.ch/deseco/intro.htm.
[16] Draganidis, F., and Mentzas, G. (2006). Competency Based Management: A Review of Systems and Approaches. Journal of Information Management and Computer Security, 14(1), 51-64.
[17] Dubois, D. (1993). Competency-Based Performance Improvement: A Strategy for Organizational Change. Boston: HRD Press.
[18] Frazee, V. (1996). Competencies Emerge in Hiring, Training and Pay. Personnel Journal, 75, 24-27.
[19] Gatewood, R. D., and Feild, H. S. (2001). Human Resource Selection (5th ed.). Orlando: Harcourt.
[20] Grzeda, M. M. (2005). In Competence we Trust? Addressing Conceptual Ambiguity. Journal of Management Development, 24, 530-545.
[21] Gupta, S. (2005). Competency: A Prospect or Retrospect. Retrieved November 20, 2008, from http://ssrn.com/abstract=645241 (Accessed: November 2008).
[22] Hartle, F. (1995). How to Re-engineer your Performance Management Process. London: Kogan Page.
[23] Haynal, G. (2002). Diplomacy on the Ascendant in the Age of Disintermediation. Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, Harvard University.
[24] Heinsman, H. (2008). The Competency Concept Revealed: Its Nature, Relevance, and Practice. A PhD Dissertation at the Vrije Universiteit, Kurt Lewin Institute Dissertation Series. ISBN: 978-90-76269-62-7
[25] Heinsman, H., De Hoogh, A.H., Koopman, P.L., and Van Muijen, J.J. (2007). Competencies through the Eyes of Psychologists: A closer Look at Assessing Competencies. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15, 412-427.
[26] International Board of Standards for Training and Performance Instruction. (2009). Competencies. Retrieved September 12, 2006 from http://www.ibstpi.org/ competencies.htm.
[27] Iversen, O. (May 2000). Managing People Towards a Multicultural Workforce: An Investigation into the Importance of Managerial Competencies Across National Borders in Europe-Difference and Similarities. Unpublished paper presented at the 8th World Congress on Human Resources Management, Paris.
[28] Jackson, D. (2009). Profiling Industry-Relevant Management Graduate Competencies: The Need for a Fresh Approach. International Journal of Management Education, 8(1).
[29] Jackson, S.E. and Schuler, R.S. (2003). Managing Human Resources through Strategic Partnerships (2nd ed.). South-Western, Mason.
[30] Kerr, M. (1995). Tacit Knowledge as a Predictor of Managerial Success: A Field Study. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 27, 36-51.
[31] Koeppen, K., Hartig, J., Klieme, E., & Leutner, D. (2008). Current Issues in Competence Modeling and Assessment. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 216, 61–73.
[32] Kurz, R., and Bartram, D. (2002). Competency and Individual Performance: Modeling the world of Work. In H. Heinsman (2008). The Competency Concept Revealed: Its Nature, Relevance, and Practice. A PhD Dissertation at the Vrije Universiteit, Kurt Lewin Institute Dissertation Series. ISBN: 978-90-76269-62-7.
[33] Lado, A. A., & Wilson, M. C. (1994). Human Resource Systems and Sustained Competitive Advantage: A competency-Based Perspective. Academy of Management Review, 19, 699-727.
[34] Lawler, E.E. (1994). From Job-Based to Competency-Based Organizations. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 15, 3-15.
[35] Le Deist, F.D., and J. Winterton, (2005). What is Competence? Human Resource Development International, 8(1), 27-46.
[36] Levenson, A.R., Van der Stede, W.A. and Cohen S.G. (2006). Measuring the Relationship Between Managerial Competencies and Performance. Journal of Management, 32(3), 360-380.
[37] Lucia, A.D. and Lepsinger, R. (1999). The Art and Science of Competency Models, Pinpointing Critical Success Factor in Organization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publisher.
[38] Mansfield, R.S. (1996). Building Competency Models. Human Resource Management, 35, 718
[39] Mansfield, R.S. (November, 2000). Practical Questions for Building Competency Models. Discussion Paper presented at Insight Information Company Conference: Competency-Based Management for the Federal Public Service, Ottawa.
[40] Markus, L.H., Cooper-Thomas, H.D., Allpress, K.N. (2005). Confounded by Competencies? An Evaluation of the Evolution and Use of Competency Models. New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 34(2).
[41] Marrelli, A.F. (1998), An Introduction to Competency Analysis and Modeling. Performance Improvement, 37, 8-17.
[42] McCharen, B. (1996). Measuring the Effects of Career Planning: The Seventh Competency. Journal of Career Development, 23, 73-82.
[43] McClelland, D.C. (1973). Testing for competence rather than for ‘intelligence’. American Psychologist, 28(1), 1-14.
[44] McClelland, D.C. (1976). A guide to Job Competence Assessment. Boston: McBer.
[45] McClelland, D.C. (1998). Identifying Competencies with Behavioural-Event Interviews. Psychological Science, 9(5), 331-339.
[46] McClelland, D.C., and Boyatzis, R.E. (1980). Opportunities for Counsellors from the Competency Assessment Movement. Personnel and Guidance Journal, January, 368- 372.
[47] McLagan, P. (1996). “Great Ideas Revisited: Competency Models Creating the Future of HRD”. Training and Development, 50(1), 60-65.
[48] Mirabile, R. J. (1985). A model for Competency-Based Career Development. Personnel, 62, 30-38.
[49] Mitrani, A., Dalziel, M., and Fitt, D. (1992). Competency-Based Human Resource Management: Value-Driven Strategies for Recruitment, Development and Reward. London: Kogan Page Ltd.
[50] Nordhaug, O. (1993). Human Capital in Organizations: Competence, Training, and Learning. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press.
[51] Nordhaug, O. and Grønhaug, K. (1994). Competences as Resources in Firms. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 5(1), 89-106.
[52] Nybø, G. (2004). Personnel Development for Dissolving Jobs: Towards a Competency-Based Approach. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 15(3), 549-564.
[53] Patterson, F., Ferguson, E., Lane, P., Farrell, K., Martlew, J., Wells, A. (2000). A Competency Model for General Practice: Implications for Selection, Training, and Development. British Journal of General Practice, 50, 188-193.
[54] Phillips, P., and Wallis, C. (1994). Professional Competence, Training and Transferable Skills: Some Views from the Field. Educational and Child Psychology, 1, 54-62.
[55] Prahalad, C.K. and Hamel, G. (1990). The Core Competence of the Corporation. Harvard Business Review, 68(3), 79-91.
[56] Roos, J. and Von Krogh, G. (1992). Figuring out your Competence Configuration. European Management Journal, 10(4), 422-427.
[57] Rowe, C. (1995). Clarifying the Use of Competence and Competency Models in Recruitment, Assessment, and Staff Development. Industrial and Commercial Training, 27, 12-17.
[58] Ruth, D. (2006). Frameworks of Managerial Competence: Limits, Problems and Suggestions. Journal of European Industrial Training, 30(3), 206-226.
[59] Shermon, G. (2004). Competency Based HRM: A Strategic Resource for Competency Mapping, Assessment, and Development Centres. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing.
[60] Shippmann, J.S., Ash, R.A., Battista, M.A., Carr, L., Eyde, L.D., Hesketh, B., Kehoe, J., Pearlman, K., Prien, E.P., and Sanchez, J.I. (2000). The Practice of Competency Modeling. Personnel Psychology 53,703-740.
[61] Sokol, M., and Oresick, R. (1986). “Managerial Performance Appraisal” (pp. 376- 392). In R.A. Berk, Ed., Performance Assessment: Methods and Applications. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
[62] Spencer, L.M, and Spencer, S.M. (1993). Competence at Work: Models for Superior Performance. New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
[63] Tripathi, P., Ranjan J. (October, 2009). Competency-Based Modeling for the Effective Assessment and Evaluation Process: Institutional Perspective. Unpublished paper presented at the International Conference on Human Resource Development, Taiwan.
[64] Vazirani, N. (2010). Competencies and Competency Model: A Brief Overview of its Development and Application. SIES Journal of Management, 7(1), 121.
[65] Weinert, F. E. (2001). Concept of competence: A conceptual clarification. In: Rychen, D.S. & Saganik, L. H. (Eds.), Defining and selecting key competencies, (pp. 45-65), Hogrefe & Huber, Seattle.
[66] Wilson, T.B. (1995). Innovative Reward Systems for the Changing Workplace. New York: McGraw Hill.
[67] Woodruffe, C. (1991). Competent by Any Other Name. Personnel Management, 38- 42.
[68] Xiong, H., Lee, W.B. (2011). Knowledge, Science, Engineering, and Management. Unpublished paper presented at the 5th International Conference: KSEM 2011, CA, USA.
[69] Youn, S., Stepich, D., and Cox, D. (2006). Building a Competency-Based Curriculum Architecture to Educate 21st-Century Business Practitioners. Journal of Education for Business, 307-311.